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PUTTING A FACE ON PREHISTORY: THE FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION OF TWO NATIVE AMERICAN CRANIA

Karen Oeh

INTRODUCTION

Facial reconstruction is a technique used to identify an individual from morphological characteristics of the cranium (Angel 1986; Caldwell 1981; Gatliff and Snow 1979). In modern criminal cases, a deceased individual might be identified in drawings or by clothing and jewelry styles. In comparison, the identity of prehistoric Native Americans may never be known because personal traits, such as hair and eye color and genetic likeness, cannot be obtained from a family portrait nor the archaeological and osteological data. Without fingerprints, dental records, and photographs, the identity of the deceased may remain a mystery (Krogman 1946; Morse 1983; Rathbun and Buikstra 1984; Stewart 1964, 1979).

A three-dimensional (3-D) reproduction technique used by criminal investigators to identify homicide victims has recently been applied to the personalization of Native American crania. The appearance and facial characteristics of Native American populations illustrated in the literature only represent a two hundred year time span. Furthermore, present-day Ohlone from the Santa Clara Valley may not display pure biological similarities with their prehistoric ancestors due to Hispanic influence and admixture. Until recently, it was impossible to know exactly what prehistoric Native Americans looked like. With the introduction of three-dimensional facial reconstruction, it is possible to put a face on prehistory.

In February of 1994, three sets of Native American skeletal remains with associated mortuary artifacts were excavated from the campus of Santa Clara University. Multiple analytical and identification techniques were used to document and record data prior to repatriation by the Ohlone family tribe. During the summer of 1995, radiocarbon (C-14) dating was performed on the remains by Dr. Herbert Haas of the Desert Research Institute in Las Vegas. According to this dating technique, the skeleton from Burial 1 dated between the years A.D. 666 and 771 (Spectrum 1996:1).

I was contacted in September 1996 by Dr. Russell Skowronek, Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Santa Clara University to reconstruct the faces of two prehistoric Native American crania from Burial 1 and Burial 3. Dr. Lorna Pierce, a forensic anthropologist, had previously examined the remains to determine age at death, sex, stature, trauma, disease, and nutrition. The fragmented cranial bones of Burial 1 and Burial 3 were reconstructed to help with the identification and analysis. Dr. Pierce determined that Burial 1 was a female, aged 30-45 years, and Burial 3 was a teenager approximately 14-16 years old (Pierce 1996).

This study represents the first recorded case of a prehistoric Californian Native American face reproduced with clay in order to establish a personal appearance. Previously, this identification tool had never been performed on the crania of Native Americans who lived in this region over 1,300 years ago. The ability to create facial features and personal characteristics from the skull gives humanity to these unidentified skeletons. From the cranial architecture, two distinct faces emerged to offer insight into population affinities and familial ties among prehistoric central California aboriginals. The value of this technique to physical anthropology and archaeology is unlimited.

IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

There are several techniques used in forensic anthropology to aid in identifying skeletal remains. Often, conventional methods, such as publicizing physical features, describing clothing and hairstyles, and searching missing persons bulletins, prove unsuccessful (Gatliff 1986:16). Similar methods have been used by criminal investigators and museum curators to reconstruct, restore, and reproduce facial features of a murder victim (Rhine 1984; Snow et al. 1970) or an historical figure (Elliott 1992; Gatliff 1986; Maples et al.1989).

Photograph superimposition is a three-dimensional technique used by investigators to identify the deceased from photographs or x-rays. A photograph of an individual’s face is superimposed over an image of the skull that is displayed on a television screen by computer and video enhancement. The two images are then analyzed to ensure that certain facial contours and bony landmarks are aligned in anatomical position. A positive match suggests that the skull belongs to that person in the photograph (Morse et al. 1983). This method can only be applied to specific cases where the identity of a skull may be known, and a photograph of the individual is available for comparison.

A second method involves two-dimensional graphic reproduction in which a drawing or portrait is produced from the size and shape of the skull (Angel 1986; Morse et al. 1983). The steps involved in this technique are as follows: (1) five to six photographs of a skull are taken in the Frankfurt Horizontal plane, and an outline is drawn of the frontal view and profile face; (2) soft tissue depths are added to the original drawing which relate to muscle and skin thickness; and (3) finished sketches of the cranium provide a humanistic appearance (Angel 1986:7). A positive aspect of this form of identification is the ability to produce a quick and cost effective reproduction. A negative point is that the drawing does not have a life-like appearance.

The third technique is three-dimensional facial reconstruction based on the modeling, molding, and sculpting of clay on a cranium to produce a personal likeness. This form of identification has been successfully used in criminal investigations when human remains are decomposed beyond recognition (Rathbun and Buikstra 1984). If the coroner or law enforcement officials are unable to assume a positive identification through personal belongings, dentition, or fingerprints, a facial reconstruction of the skull may be required. Once the sculpture is complete, photographs are often published in newspapers or displayed on the television to help solve the investigation (Brothwell 1986; El-Najjar and McWilliams 1978; Snow et al. 1970; Stewart 1964,1979).

Three-dimensional facial reconstruction has also been used in museum work where a bronze cast of an historical figure was desired for public display (Gatliff 1986). This method was applied to the reconstruction and identification of Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish conquistador assassinated in 1541. It was common belief that Pizarro was originally buried behind the Cathedral of the Plaza de Armas before his mummified body was placed in a glass sarcophagus at the altar of the Lima Cathedral. In 1977, physicians and anthropologists located the authentic remains of Pizarro in a crypt under the Cathedral. The skull, preserved in a lead box, was cast and sent to Gatliff for reconstruction. In 1986, castings of the reconstruction were displayed at the Florida State Museum in Gainesville and the Xavier DeSalas Foundation Museum in Trujillo, Spain. In 1988, the Association of Medical Illustrators awarded Gatliff first place in three-dimensional media for the Pizarro reconstruction (Gatliff 1986; Maples et al. 1989).

Recently, Ms. Gatliff has been involved with the reconstruction of Amerindian crania from the Central Plains prior to repatriation by the tribes. As a result of NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act), valuable information concerning Native American population affinities has been lost. In order to preserve as much information as possible, casts of the facial reproductions have been molded into bronze displays for various museums (Gatliff 1995).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tissue Thickness The technique of facial reconstruction is formulated from the depth of muscle and soft tissues that cover bony landmarks of the skull. Soft tissue thickness data have been collected since the nineteenth century by such researchers as Welcker (1883), His (1895), and Kollmann (1898) who have been credited as the first to obtain tissue thickness measurements from identifiable points on the face, and thus transforming three-dimensional facial reproduction into a scientific technique (Stewart 1979:260). In more modern times, Rhine and Campbell (1980) and Rhine and Moore (1982) have been instrumental in the collection of tissue measurements from the different sexes and races.

W. His was one of the first researchers to obtain tissue depth measurements for three-dimensional facial reconstruction. In 1895, His examined 28 cadavers from the Anatomy Department at Leipzig University, Germany using a double-edged knife technique. A sharp needle was inserted into the facial tissue of each cadaver at nine predetermined median points and six lateral points on the side of the face. The distance between the needle point and a special rubber disc fitted onto the needle was measured to obtain facial thickness depths. His used this data to reconstruct the face of Johann Sebastian Bach whose skeletal remains were commingled with other exhumed skeletons during renovations at the Church of St. John in Leipzig. The presumed cranium of Bach was given to His for identification, and a cast of the skull was reconstructed from the tissue depth data collected by His (1895). An accurate marble bust of the composer was produced from the three-dimensional facial reproduction (Caldwell 1981).

Tissue thickness measurements obtained by both historical and modern methods can be used for a quality 3-D facial reconstruction (Gatliff 1986; Gatliff and Snow 1979; Rhine and Campbell 1980). Before attempting to reproduce an individual’s face, the sculptor must choose specific tissue measurements corresponding to sex, race, and size (i.e. slender, normal, or stout). Rhine and Campbell (1980) and Rhine and Moore (1982) offer the most in-depth and racially varied measurements to date with tissue depths calculated from a large sample (Gatliff 1986). In 1980, Rhine and Campbell improved the quality of depth measurements to examine facial asymmetry from bilateral measurements, test the differences in tissue thickness between males and females, observe how aging affects tissue thickness, and publish information on blacks and other underrepresented racial groups.

During this analysis of prehistoric crania, the tissue thickness data of Rhine (1983) were used to produce accurate and high quality facial reproductions. Tissue measurements for Burial 1, a female aged 30-45 years, followed the table for “Southwestern Indians, normal female.” The sex of the teenager from Burial 3 was questionable due to the condition of the remains and bone morphology. Tissue depth markers for Burial 3 followed the table for “Southwestern Indians, slender male”.

Materials A brand of clay commonly used in three-dimensional facial reconstruction is Kaolin clay, consisting of Kaolin clay, calcium sulphate, and petrolatum. This permanent plastic modeling clay is non-toxic, non-hardening, and odorless. Light brown colored clay was used on the Native American skulls to depict an accurate skin tone. Two pounds of clay was sufficient to reconstruct a single cranium. Another type of material needed for the reconstruction was prosthetic eyes that have a life-like quality. Brown colored eyeballs, measuring 24mm in length, were used in this project.

After these materials were gathered, the two skulls were ready for the three-dimensional facial reproduction technique in which clay, acting as muscle, soft tissue, and skin, was built up on the skull. These crania were in extremely fragile condition with cranial fragments glued in place. The mandible of Burial 1 was not recovered with the skeletal remains, so in order to successfully complete the facial reconstruction, a mandible was borrowed from the prehistoric Native American collection, CA- Ala- 329, curated by San Jose State University. A female mandible was fitted and aligned with the Burial 1 cranium by Dr. Robert Jurmain to ensure a proper match.

Each mandible was attached to the cranium where the condyles articulate at the temporo-mandibular joints. Clay and cotton were placed in the joint areas, and the two surfaces were glued together, making sure the mandible and maxilla were aligned. The crania were then mounted on a specially designed stand and aligned in the Frankfurt Horizontal place. To prepare the skull for the addition of clay, the eye orbits and nasal cavity were protected with cotton balls and masking tape. This safety measure provided strength for the bones to prevent cracks and chips under pressure. After the skulls were prepared, tissue markers, made of eraser material, were cut at corresponding lengths to the predetermined tissue thickness measurement data.

The precut tissue markers were glued onto the skull at specific bony landmarks (see Figure 1) and strips of clay were then molded into a latticework effect in relation to muscle and soft tissues of the face. The clay was contoured, shaped, and sculpted until the facial features were established. Soft tissue features, including eye-lid, ear, and lower nose shape, mouth width, and lip thickness, could not be determined from the underlying bone. Also, wrinkles, freckles, scars, and facial expressions were not recognizable, so I had to use my experience to structure the face into a realistic form. The problem associated with this technique is the inability to determine an individual’s unique facial expressions from the cranium.

RESULTS

Burial 3 The face of the subadult from Burial 3 was reconstructed in October 1996. The sex of this individual was unknown, so any actual sexual characteristics in the face were a result of the underlying cranial architecture. A young looking appearance was the result of eye alignment and nose structure. The prosthetic eyes were aligned with the bony orbits so that they slightly protruded from the sockets, and the lower portion of the nose was upturned. Drawings and photographs of nineteenth century California Native Americans were used as a guideline for such specific features as lip shape and hairstyle. The most realistic lip and nose shapes were sculpted in relation to the overall contour of the face so that a humanistic person emerged from the clay.

The image that appeared in the clay had a slightly elongated face that was extremely narrow at the temporal lines. The skull did not suffer from perimortem or postmortem trauma in this area between the frontal, parietals, and sphenoid. The face was feminine in nature and lacked heavy, robust brow ridges. Another interesting characteristic was the long, narrow nose that represented a more Caucasian trait. A photograph of this reconstruction is presented in Figure 2. As a comparison, Kevin Richland, a detective with the Sunnyvale Police Department, created a two-dimensional drawing of the skull that reflected narrowness of the face (Figure 3).

Burial 1 The cranium of the adult female, aged 30-45 years, underwent a three-dimensional facial reconstruction in November of 1996. Eye alignment and nose shape were used to give this Ohlone woman an older appearance. For example, the prosthetic eyes were placed inside the sockets to create deep-set eyes, and the nose was tipped down. The overall length and width of the nose was determined by a preset formula calculated from measurements of the nasal spine and nasal aperture. In addition, extra clay was added around the eyes, mouth, cheeks, and chin to give the appearance of wrinkled skin. Her upper lip was thickened, while the lower lip was pushed together and enlarged. Wrinkles were added around the eyes and on the forehead, and the eyebrows were thickened.

The face of this middle-aged woman reflected certain Native American characteristics, including a wide nose, thick lips, and forward projecting cheekbones. The use of a different mandible for the reconstruction may have affected the appearance because the distance between nose and upper lip is uncharacteristically long. Also, the substitute mandible was missing teeth, thus possibly affecting lip size and shape. A long black wig pulled back in a ponytail was added for a more realistic appearance. A photograph of this woman’s face is presented in Figure 4.

After these two facial reconstructions were completed, a mold was made of each face in order to preserve the images in plaster casts. The human skeletal remains were reburied, and the casts are the only recorded documentation of what prehistoric Ohlone Indians might have looked like over a thousand years ago (Figure 5). The casts are currently on display at the de Saisset Museum in Santa Clara, CA.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The three-dimensional facial reconstructions performed in this investigation made possible the more accurate rendering of two individualistic Native American faces. The humanistic appearance of a young teenager and a middle-aged woman offer clues as to what an Ohlone may have looked like approximately 1,300 years ago. Ohlone family members alive today may retain certain facial features and characteristics of their prehistoric ancestors.

Previous research involving central California Native Americans has been limited to the analyses of material culture, subsistence practices, health, and disease. The identification technique detailed in this study created a more personal interpretation of the Ohlone, for whom facial reproductions have not previously been performed. The reproductions of Amerindian crania from the Plains region by Betty Pat Gatliff do not represent an accurate description or image of the Ohlone from the Santa Clara Valley.

In conclusion, facial reconstruction is an interesting and exciting technique used to determine the personal appearance of an individual from the skull. Dental records and fingerprint analysis are highly accurate, but they do not offer a “personal picture” of the deceased. It is rewarding to observe a skull transformed into a realistic human face to add life to a homicide victim, historical figure, or prehistoric skeleton. Furthermore, these results should prove useful to those who find themselves faced with the identification of a Native American skull within a forensic or archaeological context. Because of NAGPRA and the limited time available to thoroughly analyze human skeletal remains, it is suggested that this 3-D technique be employed whenever possible. Casts of the reproductions may be the only objects left that reflect aboriginal cranial size, shape, and facial characteristics. In addition, putting a face on prehistory creates a humanistic picture of what Native Americans may have actually looked like, and if any Ohlone ancestors alive today share these same traits.

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